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      HBV垂直傳播形式及阻斷策略

       臨床肝膽病雜志 2019-12-13

      世界衛(wèi)生組織流行病學(xué)研究報告顯示,全世界HBV攜帶者為3.6億,其中1/3感染者在中國。母嬰垂直傳播感染占總感染病例數(shù)的45%左右[1]。近年來我國新生兒出生后廣泛接種乙型肝炎疫苗或?qū)Ω呶.a(chǎn)婦所生新生兒進(jìn)行乙型肝炎免疫球蛋白(HBIG)沖擊治療,HBV母嬰垂直傳播率從建國初期的90%降至目前的10%左右。產(chǎn)前、產(chǎn)時和產(chǎn)后傳播是造成HBV母嬰垂直傳播的3種主要方式。臨床上找到提高HBV母嬰垂直傳播阻斷率的合理方式對于消滅乙型肝炎至關(guān)重要。

      1  HBV感染的母嬰垂直傳播途徑

      1.1  產(chǎn)前感染

      宮內(nèi)感染是指胎兒在母體內(nèi)生長發(fā)育過程中被母體內(nèi)HBV感染[2]。與新生兒外周血相比,臍帶血更加遠(yuǎn)離母體血液環(huán)境,被母血感染的幾率更低,因此更加適合于診斷胎兒是否在出生前已經(jīng)發(fā)生宮內(nèi)感染[3]。宮內(nèi)感染或產(chǎn)前HBV傳播是新生兒免疫阻斷失敗的重要原因,其機(jī)制如下。

      1.1.1  胎盤感染    胎盤是運輸母體營養(yǎng)物質(zhì)到胎兒的重要組織,胎盤血液循環(huán)豐富。因此HBV也可以通過胎盤血液循環(huán)運送到嬰兒血液,造成宮內(nèi)HBV感染[4]。

      1.1.2  胎盤漏血    HBV可以通過受損的胎盤組織從母體進(jìn)入胎兒體內(nèi)并使之感染。自發(fā)流產(chǎn)病史或先兆早產(chǎn)都可能導(dǎo)致胎盤損傷而增加HBV傳播幾率[5]。

      1.1.3  羊水穿刺    羊水穿刺技術(shù)是診斷胎兒先天性疾病的金標(biāo)準(zhǔn),是優(yōu)生優(yōu)育的必要手段。羊水穿刺過程中可以將母血接種于宮腔,增加HBV母嬰傳播風(fēng)險[6]。

      1.1.4  其他機(jī)制    母親外周血單核細(xì)胞可能將HBV攜帶至胎兒體內(nèi)而引起HBV感染[7]。

      1.2  產(chǎn)時感染

      產(chǎn)時感染是指新生兒在出生過程中造成的HBV感染,包括新生兒吞咽攜帶HBV病毒顆粒的母體血液、陰道分泌物。順產(chǎn)孕婦長時間宮縮反應(yīng)可能導(dǎo)致胎盤絨毛血管破裂,造成HBV感染的母血滲入胎兒體內(nèi)而引發(fā)感染[8]。接生時使用產(chǎn)鉗等器械造成的黏膜破損或皮膚擦傷能夠增加嬰兒HBV感染幾率[9]。

      1.3  產(chǎn)后感染

      產(chǎn)后感染指嬰兒出生后被母體傳播HBV并造成感染,嚴(yán)格意義來講屬于一種水平傳播方式。研究發(fā)現(xiàn)乳汁中能夠檢測到少量HBV,間接說明了母乳喂養(yǎng)可能造成HBV的母嬰傳播。但一項前瞻性研究[10]發(fā)現(xiàn)母乳喂養(yǎng)與人工喂養(yǎng)嬰兒的HBV感染率無明顯差異。

      2  HBV感染的母嬰垂直傳播阻斷策略

      妊娠晚期使用抗病毒藥物或HBIG降低母體HBV載量,可以明顯減少宮內(nèi)感染,是分娩前預(yù)防母嬰垂直傳播的主要手段[11]。分娩時預(yù)防是指新生兒出生后立即離開母體血液環(huán)境,并徹底清除嬰兒體表的血液和黏液等污染源。嚴(yán)格處理嬰兒臍帶斷口不被母血污染。乙型肝炎疫苗的接種和HBIG主被動聯(lián)合免疫可以明顯降低新生兒產(chǎn)后HBV的感染幾率,是分娩后預(yù)防HBV母嬰垂直傳播的主要手段。在此基礎(chǔ)上,如果能對高危孕產(chǎn)婦孕期的HBV進(jìn)行嚴(yán)格管理,并進(jìn)行科學(xué)的干預(yù)和抗病毒治療,將更大水平地提高母嬰阻斷率,是目前逐漸被推廣的阻斷措施。

      2.1  孕期抗病毒治療

      乙型肝炎母嬰垂直傳播最高危因素是產(chǎn)婦分娩時的HBV高病毒載量。產(chǎn)前合理抗病毒治療可以快速降低產(chǎn)前HBV拷貝數(shù),顯著提高新生兒母嬰傳播阻斷成功率[12-14]。拉米夫定、替比夫定和替諾福韋是目前可以用于孕期抗HBV的3種主要藥物。替比夫定是目前中國孕婦進(jìn)行孕期抗病毒治療的主要用藥,其具有用藥安全性高、抗病毒效果強(qiáng)、價格低廉等多種優(yōu)勢。高病毒載量孕婦在孕晚期選用替比夫定進(jìn)行抗病毒治療可以使血清病毒載量平均降低3~4 log[15-16]。一項臨床研究[17]結(jié)果顯示,在嬰兒接受主被動免疫基礎(chǔ)上,應(yīng)用替比夫定抗病毒治療的產(chǎn)婦母嬰傳播率明顯下降。替比夫定的用藥安全性已經(jīng)在臨床試驗和動物實驗上得到充分證實[18-19]。妊娠期激素水平的變化會導(dǎo)致HBV攜帶孕婦孕期ALT水平下降,HBV DNA水平升高[20]。血清HBV DNA>2×106~107 IU/ml的孕婦可以加用拉米夫定或替比夫定[21]。替諾福韋在治療慢性乙型肝炎患者8年的隨訪研究顯示,HBeAg血清學(xué)轉(zhuǎn)換率為31%,HBV DNA陰轉(zhuǎn)率為98%,HBsAg陰轉(zhuǎn)率為13%。該研究還顯示,替諾福韋第1年到第8年發(fā)生的耐藥率均為0。由此可見替諾福韋在抗HBV方面的可靠性是目前為止最高的,所以其他核苷類藥物單藥耐藥或應(yīng)答不佳的患者可以換用替諾福韋繼續(xù)治療。

      2.2  孕期注射HBIG

      HBIG含有高效價的抗-HBs,能夠識別并中和HBsAg,清除血液中的游離HBV。孕期應(yīng)用HBIG可以降低母體HBV拷貝數(shù)而降低HBV母嬰傳播幾率[11,22-23]。但是孕期應(yīng)用HBIG阻斷HBV母嬰傳播效果存在一定爭議。一項中國的臨床研究[24]顯示孕期應(yīng)用HBIG對阻斷母嬰傳播并沒有效果,同時嬰兒出生后檢測抗-HBs為陰性。因此,HBIG能否通過胎盤屏障進(jìn)入嬰兒體內(nèi)提供主動免疫還不得而知。同時,過早使用HBIG反而增加了選擇壓力,導(dǎo)致HBV抗原變異,使疫苗有效性下降,增加免疫逃逸[25]。

      2.3  乙型肝炎疫苗聯(lián)合高效價HBIG的主被動免疫

      乙型肝炎疫苗的普遍注射對控制HBV新發(fā)感染和傳播具有重要意義。我國自1992年將乙型肝炎疫苗納入計劃免疫項目以來,一般人群的HBsAg攜帶率從9.75%降至7.18%。其中4歲以下嬰幼兒的下降率最明顯,從9.7%降至0.96%[26-27]。我國《慢性乙型肝炎防治指南(2010年版)》[28]建議對HBsAg陽性母親分娩的新生兒,應(yīng)在出生后第1天、第1個月和第6個月時分別接種3次乙型肝炎疫苗,同時在出生當(dāng)天盡早注射≥100 IU的HBIG。2013年《乙型肝炎病毒母嬰傳播預(yù)防臨床指南(第1版)》[29]提出HBIG需要在出生后12 h內(nèi)使用。上述預(yù)防措施對HBsAg陽性、HBeAg陰性孕婦所生新生兒保護(hù)率為98%~100%,對HBsAg陽性、HBeAg陽性孕婦所生新生兒保護(hù)率為85%~95%[30-33]。

      3  HBV母嬰垂直傳播阻斷失敗原因及應(yīng)對措施

      HBsAg陽性孕婦所生的新生兒,HBeAg可通過胎盤從母體傳遞給嬰兒,一般會在1~2年時間內(nèi)消失。因此單一存在抗-HBe或抗-HBc陽性只表示母體的抗體通過胎盤,而不是代表HBV感染狀態(tài),因此更加豐富的HBV血清學(xué)標(biāo)志物和更長時間的隨訪監(jiān)測對于判斷母嬰阻斷及免疫接種效果的評價顯得尤為重要[34]。乙型肝炎母嬰免疫阻斷失敗情況幾乎集中于HBsAg和HBeAg雙陽性母親所生嬰兒[35]。因此,孕產(chǎn)婦的病毒載量高低、新生兒出生后的阻斷時機(jī)和疫苗用量、嬰兒本身的免疫系統(tǒng)功能都將成為HBV母嬰垂直傳播阻斷成功與否的關(guān)鍵因素。

      3.1  孕產(chǎn)婦抗病毒藥物的耐藥性問題

      耐藥是所有藥物必須要面對的問題,抗HBV藥物也不例外。臨床數(shù)據(jù)顯示,非孕期慢性HBV感染女性患者連續(xù)應(yīng)用拉米夫定治療1年后的耐藥率可達(dá)23.99%,而4年后高達(dá)69.99%。耐藥機(jī)制可能與HBV聚合酶基因YMDD的突變有關(guān)[36]。替比夫定的耐藥風(fēng)險明顯低于拉米夫定,1年內(nèi)的耐藥率為4.99%,1年以上持續(xù)用藥的耐藥率僅為10.00%[37]。研究數(shù)據(jù)證實,對拉米夫定耐藥的患者口服替比夫定或替諾福韋,能夠有效實現(xiàn)HBV感染的母嬰阻斷。

      3.2  嬰兒出生后接種疫苗或HBIG的時間和劑量

      提高乙型肝炎疫苗劑量可以進(jìn)一步提高HBeAg陽性母親所生嬰兒的HBV阻斷率。Cadranel等[38]臨床研究顯示,30例HBsAg陽性母親所生的新生兒接受20 μg乙型肝炎疫苗免疫后,無1例嬰兒感染HBV。Halliday等[39]研究顯示使用10 μg乙型肝炎疫苗免疫新生兒的HBV阻斷率為93.9%,而應(yīng)用20 μg的母嬰垂直傳播阻斷率提高到96.0%。關(guān)于HBIG和乙型肝炎疫苗的首針注射時間,疾病預(yù)防控制中心和免疫實踐咨詢委員會推薦,HBsAg陽性者所生新生兒乙型肝炎疫苗首針應(yīng)該在出生后12 h內(nèi)注射[40]。若母親為HBsAg和HBeAg雙陽性,HBIG注射的時間越早對其阻斷效果越好[41-42]。2013年《乙型肝炎病毒母嬰傳播預(yù)防臨床指南(第1版)》[29]提出HBIG需要在出生后12 h內(nèi)(理論上越早越好)使用。但各個研究中首針注射時間并不統(tǒng)一,一般在出生后3~24 h[43-46]。所以,更大劑量的使用乙型肝炎疫苗或HBIG,并爭取在新生兒出生后更早進(jìn)行免疫,將會顯著提高HBV母嬰垂直傳播的阻斷率。

      3.3  HBsAg蛋白變異

      HBsAg決定簇被稱為“a決定簇”,“a決定簇”區(qū)的變異可引起HBsAg免疫特征改變,導(dǎo)致抗體和疫苗逃逸[47-48]。因此,應(yīng)用精準(zhǔn)醫(yī)學(xué)手段檢測母體HBsAg“a決定簇”是否變異而采取相應(yīng)的處理措施,將會提高HBV母嬰垂直傳播的阻斷率。

      3.4  新生兒免疫系統(tǒng)不成熟因素

      新生兒對于一些細(xì)菌或病毒的易感性高于成人被歸咎于免疫系統(tǒng)的不成熟性[49-50]。長期以來的理論認(rèn)為,HBV從母體傳染給嬰兒是在孕期劫持了新生兒的免疫系統(tǒng),使之處于免疫耐受狀態(tài)并造成感染后的慢性化。HBV母嬰垂直傳播動物模型會造成下一代免疫系統(tǒng)中T淋巴細(xì)胞和B淋巴細(xì)胞的功能缺陷,印證了上述理論[51-53]。但是,近年來“訓(xùn)練免疫”理論對前述理論提出了挑戰(zhàn)。研究[54-55]中觀察到HBV陽性的母體所生新生兒更不易發(fā)生感染,會有更強(qiáng)的輔助性T淋巴細(xì)胞1反應(yīng)功能。Hong等[56]在動物實驗中發(fā)現(xiàn)HBV陽性母體所生新生小鼠的單核細(xì)胞能夠分泌更多的IL-12和IFNα2,而分泌IL-10的水平明顯低下。新生兒免疫系統(tǒng)的狀態(tài)對HBV感染母嬰垂直傳播的阻斷率有一定影響,但是具體因果關(guān)系還需進(jìn)一步的實驗或臨床觀察來證明。 

      4  結(jié)論

      妊娠期間HBV的管理較為復(fù)雜,任何治療策略必須兼顧母親和未出生嬰兒的益處和安全性。對于計劃懷孕的育齡婦女,選擇抗病毒治療方案時需要考慮對胎兒的潛在影響。HBV感染孕婦,特別是HBsAg/HBeAg陽性且病毒載量高的孕婦,必須通過抗病毒治療控制其病毒血癥,以降低HBV母嬰傳播的風(fēng)險,維持孕婦健康。此外,新生兒出生后的阻斷時機(jī)和疫苗用量、嬰兒本身的免疫系統(tǒng)功能都將成為HBV母嬰垂直傳播阻斷成功與否的關(guān)鍵因素。綜上所述,除了必要的主動、被動免疫預(yù)防之外,建議在懷孕期間和產(chǎn)后6個月經(jīng)常監(jiān)測HBV,以便及時開始抗病毒治療。

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